const in headers

D

Dave

Hello NG,

It is well known that memory-allocating definitions should not be put in a
header file. I believe, however, that this does not apply to const
definitions. For example:

#ifndef MY_HEADER
#define MY_HEADER

const int FOO = 42;

#endif

This is obviously something we would want to be able to do.

Why is this OK whereas putting non-const definitions in a header file is
not? How is this any different from the linker's point of view?

Thanks,
Dave
 
V

Victor Bazarov

Dave said:
It is well known that memory-allocating definitions should not be put in a
header file. I believe, however, that this does not apply to const
definitions. For example:

#ifndef MY_HEADER
#define MY_HEADER

const int FOO = 42;

#endif

This is obviously something we would want to be able to do.

Why is this OK whereas putting non-const definitions in a header file is
not? How is this any different from the linker's point of view?
Click to expand...

By default const objects have internal linkage, so every module that has
a definition of that const 'FOO' object will have its own copy of it and
they will not interfere with each other at the linking stage because their
names are not exposed.

V
 
P

puzzlecracker

Victor said:
By default const objects have internal linkage, so every module that has
a definition of that const 'FOO' object will have its own copy of it and
they will not interfere with each other at the linking stage because their
names are not exposed.

V
Click to expand...

according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea to
put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.
 
A

Andrey Tarasevich

Dave said:
...
It is well known that memory-allocating definitions should not be put in a
header file. I believe, however, that this does not apply to const
definitions. For example:

#ifndef MY_HEADER
#define MY_HEADER

const int FOO = 42;

#endif

This is obviously something we would want to be able to do.

Why is this OK whereas putting non-const definitions in a header file is
not? How is this any different from the linker's point of view?
...
Click to expand...

Well, you can put object definitions into header files as long as those
objects have internal linkage, meaning that each translation unit will
have its own internal instance of that object. With the exception of a
few special cases, putting objects with internal linkage into header
files doesn't make much sense.

Const objects is one example of such exception. They have internal
linkage by default. The main benefit of this method of definition is
that constant objects defined in this manner can participate in constant
expressions in all translation units where this object is visible (see
the definition of Integral Constant Expression (ICE), for example). For
this reason, it is used mostly with objects of "simple" types (integral,
arithmetic, scalar). The drawback is that such objects loose their
"address identity", i.e. the built-in unary '&' operator applied to the
corresponding identifier will evaluate to different values in different
translation units (for the reasons explained above). Normally, with
constant objects one cares about the former more than for the latter.

If in some situation you wanted to get the same value from '&FOO' in all
translation units, you'd have to declare and define 'FOO' in the
"traditional" way - by placing a non-defining declaration in the header

extern const int FOO;

and moving the definition to one of the implementation files

extern const int FOO = 42;

In this case 'FOO' will be able to participate in ICEs in this
implementation file only (below the point of definition), but not in the
others.
 
V

Victor Bazarov

puzzlecracker said:
[...]
according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea to
put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.
Click to expand...

How is it a good alternative? What does putting it into a class
accomplish?
 
P

puzzlecracker

Victor said:
puzzlecracker said:
[...]
according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea to
put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.
Click to expand...

How is it a good alternative? What does putting it into a class
accomplish?
Click to expand...

If you have a number of const objects, putting them into a struct
minimized the chances of name conflicts (also adds some degree
scalability). For just having one const object, it is probably not
worthwhile.
 
A

Andrey Tarasevich

puzzlecracker said:
[...]
according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea to
put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.
Click to expand...

How is it a good alternative? What does putting it into a class
accomplish?
Click to expand...

If you have a number of const objects, putting them into a struct
minimized the chances of name conflicts (also adds some degree
scalability). For just having one const object, it is probably not
worthwhile.
...
Click to expand...

Firstly, I don't see how is the issue of name conflicts relevant to
const objects only. The same potential problem exists with any
identifier. I don't think though, that this is enough to conclude that
putting anything in the header file "is not a good idea". Just don't put
there anything you don't really need there.

Secondly, why not use a namespace instead of a struct?
 
P

Pete Becker

Andrey said:
puzzlecracker said:
[...]
according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea
to

put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.
Click to expand...
Click to expand...

Secondly, why not use a namespace instead of a struct?
Click to expand...

Because Lakos wrote his book before namespaces were in the language. <g>
 
E

E. Robert Tisdale

Andrey said:
Something said:
[...]
according to John Lakos, even const definitions is not a good idea
to

put in the header; for one - name conflicts can occur. A good
alternative is incorporate it into struct/class.

How is it a good alternative? What does putting it into a class
accomplish?
Click to expand...

If you have a number of const objects, putting them into a struct
minimized the chances of name conflicts (also adds some degree
scalability). For just having one const object, it is probably not
worthwhile.
...
Click to expand...


Firstly, I don't see how is the issue of name conflicts relevant to
const objects only. The same potential problem exists with any
identifier. I don't think though, that this is enough to conclude that
putting anything in the header file "is not a good idea". Just don't put
there anything you don't really need there.

Secondly, why not use a namespace instead of a struct?
Click to expand...

The reference to John Lakos probably comes from his book
"Large Scale C++ Software Design" which was published in 1996
before the 1998 C++ standard and long before most C++ compilers
implemented namespaces.
Many of the recommendations in this text are now obsolete.
I'm sure that, if a second edition was published today,
it would recommend using namespaces as well.
 
E

E. Robert Tisdale

Dave said:
It is well known that
memory-allocating definitions should not be put in a header file.
I believe, however, that this does not apply to const definitions.
For example:

#ifndef MY_HEADER
#define MY_HEADER 1

const int FOO = 42;

#endif//MY_HEADER

This is obviously something we would want to be able to do.

Why is this OK
whereas putting non-const definitions in a header file is not?
How is this any different from the linker's point of view?
Click to expand...

In C++, the const int definition above was meant to replace

#define FOO 42

No storage needs to be reserved for FOO unless is is actually used
and no [virtual] memory needs to be reserved for it
unless you define a pointer to it.


namespace physical {
namespace unit { // conversion factor
const double radian = 1.0;
const double radians = radian;
const double rad = radian;
const double steradian = 1.0;
const double steradians = steradian;
const double sr = steradian;
const double dollar = 1.0;
const double dollars = dollar;
const double cent = dollar/100.0;
const double cents = cent;
const double dozen = 12.0;
const double doz = dozen;
const double dz = dozen;
namespace bakers {
const double dozen = 13.0;
const double doz = dozen;
const double dz = dozen;
}
const double gross = 12.0*dozen;
const double gro = gross;
const double quire = 25.0;
const double quires = quire;
const double ream = 500.0;
const double reams = ream;
const double percent = 1.0/100.0;
const double proof = percent/2.0;
const double karat = 1.0/24.0;
const double karats = karat;
const double mole = 6.0221367e+23;
const double moles = mole;
const double mol = mole;
const double pi = 3.14159265358979323846*radians;
namespace arc {
const double degree = pi/180.0;
const double degrees = degree;
const double minute = degree/60.0;
const double minutes = minute;
const double min = minute;
const double second = minute/60.0;
const double seconds = second;
const double sec = second;
const double grade = 0.9*degrees;
const double grades = grade;
namespace centesimal {
const double minute = grade/100.0;
const double minutes = minute;
const double min = minute;
const double second = grade/10000.0;
const double seconds = second;
const double sec = second;
}
}

// SI units (mks)
// length
const double meter = 1.0;
const double meters = meter;
const double m = meter;
const double kilometer = 1000.0*meters;
const double kilometers = kilometer;
const double km = kilometer;
const double decimeter = meters/10.0;
const double decimeters = decimeter;
const double dm = decimeter;
const double centimeter = meters/100.0;
const double centimeters = centimeter;
const double cm = centimeter;
const double millimeter = meters/1000.0;
const double millimeters = millimeter;
const double mm = millimeter;
const double micron = meter/1000000.0;
const double microns = micron;
const double nanometer = meter/1000000000.0;
const double nanometers = nanometer;
const double nm = nanometer;
const double decinanometer = meter/10000000000.0;
const double decinanometers = decinanometer;
const double Angstrom = decinanometer;
const double Angstroms = Angstrom;
const double Xunit = 1.00202e-13*meters;
const double Xunits = Xunit;
const double Fermi = meter/1000000000000000.0;
const double Fermis = Fermi;
// area
const double hectare = 10000.0*meter*meter;
const double hectares = hectare;
const double ha = hectare;
// volume
const double stere = meter*meter*meter;
const double steres = stere;
const double liter = stere/1000.0;
const double liters = liter;
const double l = liter;
const double milliliter = stere/1000000.0;
const double milliliters = milliliter;
const double ml = milliliter;
const double cc = milliliter;
namespace displacement {
const double ton = stere;
const double tons = ton;
const double t = ton;
}
// mass
const double kilogram = 1.0;
const double kilograms = kilogram;
const double kg = kilogram;
const double quintal = 100.0*kilograms;
const double quintals = quintal;
const double doppelzentner = quintal;
const double doppelzentners = doppelzentner;
const double gram = kilograms/1000.0;
const double grams = gram;
const double g = gram;
const double milligram = kilogram/1000000.0;
const double milligrams = milligram;
const double mg = milligram;
namespace metric { // weight
const double carat = gram/5.0;
const double carats = carat;
const double ton = 1000.0*kilograms;
const double tons = ton;
const double t = ton;
}
// time
const double second = 1.0;
const double seconds = second;
const double sec = second;
const double s = second;
const double millisecond = second/1000.0;
const double milliseconds = millisecond;
const double ms = millisecond;
const double microsecond = second/1000000.0;
const double microseconds = microsecond;
const double us = microsecond;
const double nanosecond = second/1000000000.0;
const double nanoseconds = nanosecond;
const double picosecond = second/1000000000000.0;
const double picoseconds = picosecond;
const double minute = 60.0*seconds;
const double minutes = minute;
const double min = minute;
const double hour = 60.0*minutes;
const double hours = hour;
const double hr = hour;
const double day = 24.0*hours;
const double days = day;
const double da = day;
const double week = 7.0*days;
const double weeks = week;
const double fortnight = 2.0*weeks;
const double fortnights = fortnight;
const double year = 365.2421896698*days;
const double years = year;
const double yr = year;
const double month = year/12.0;
const double months = month;
const double mo = month;
const double decade = 10.0*years;
const double decades = decade;
const double century = 100.0*years;
const double centuries = century;
const double millenium = 1000.0*years;
const double millenia = millenium;
// temporal frequency
const double Hertz = 1.0/second;
const double Hz = Hertz;
const double kiloHertz = 1000.0*Hertz;
const double kHz = kiloHertz;
const double megaHertz = 1000000*Hertz;
const double MHz = megaHertz;
// spacial frequency
const double diopter = 1.0/meter;
const double diopters = diopter;
// speed
const double kph = kilometers/hour;
// radioactivity
const double Becquerel = 1.0/second;
const double Becquerels = Becquerel;
const double Bq = Becquerel;
const double Rutherford = 1000000.0*Becquerels;
const double Rutherfords = Rutherford;
const double Curie = 3.7e+10*Becquerels;
const double Curies = Curie;
const double Ci = Curie;
// force
const double Newton = kilogram*meter/(second*second);
const double Newtons = Newton;
const double N = Newton;
const double dyne = Newton/100000.0;
const double dynes = dyne;
const double dyn = dyne;
// pressure
const double Pascal = Newton/(meter*meter);
const double Pascals = Pascal;
const double Pa = Pascal;
const double Barie = Pascal/10.0;
const double Baries = Barie;
const double Barye = Barie;
const double Baryes = Barye;
const double pieze = 1000.0*Pascals;
const double piezes = pieze;
const double pz = pieze;
const double bar = 10000.0*Pascals;
const double bars = bar;
const double Torr = 133.3224*Pascals;
const double atmosphere = 760.0*Torr;
const double atmospheres = atmosphere;
const double atm = atmosphere;
// energy
const double Joule = Newton*meter;
const double Joules = Joule;
const double J = Joule;
const double erg = Joule/10000000.0;
const double ergs = erg;
const double kiloWatthour = 3600000.0*Joules;
const double kiloWatthours = kiloWatthour;
const double kWh = kiloWatthour;
// power
const double Watt = Joule/second;
const double Watts = Watt;
const double W = Watt;
const double kiloWatt = 1000.0*Watts;
const double kiloWatts = kiloWatt;
const double kW = kiloWatt;
const double megaWatt = 1000000.0*Watts;
const double megaWatts = megaWatt;
const double MW = megaWatt;
const double milliWatt = Watt/1000.0;
const double milliWatts = milliWatt;
const double mW = milliWatt;
namespace dose { // energy
const double Gray = Joule/kilogram;
const double Grays = Gray;
const double Gy = Gray;
const double Sievert = Gray;
const double Sieverts = Sievert;
const double rad = Gray/100.0;
const double rads = rad;
const double rd = rad;
}
// electrical current
const double Ampere = 1.0;
const double Amperes = Ampere;
const double A = Ampere;
const double Biot = 10.0*Amperes;
const double Biots = Biot;
// electrical potential
const double Volt = Watt/Ampere;
const double Volts = Volt;
const double V = Volt;
// electrical resistance
const double Ohm = Volt/Ampere;
const double Ohms = Ohm;
// electrical conductance
const double mho = 1.0/Ohm;
const double mhos = mho;
const double Siemens = mho;
const double S = Siemens;
// elsectrical charge
const double Coulomb = Ampere*second;
const double Coulombs = Coulomb;
const double C = Coulomb;
const double Franklin = 3.33564e-10*Coulombs;
const double Franklins = Franklin;
// electrical capacity
const double Farad = Coulomb/Volt;
const double Farads = Farad;
const double F = Farad;
// magnetic flux
const double Weber = Volt*second;
const double Webers = Weber;
const double Wb = Weber;
const double Maxwell = Weber/100000000.0;
const double Maxwells = Maxwell;
const double M = Maxwell;
// magnetic field B
const double Tesla = Weber/(meter*meter);
const double Teslas = Tesla;
const double T = Tesla;
const double Gauss = Tesla/10000.0;
const double gamma = Tesla/1000000000.0;
// magnetic field H
const double Oerstedt = 79.57747*Ampere/meter;
const double Oerstedts = Oerstedt;
const double Oe = Oerstedt;
// magnetic inductivity
const double Henry = Weber/Ampere;
const double Henrys = Henry;
const double H = Henry;
const double milliHenry = Henry/1000.0;
const double milliHenrys = milliHenry;
const double mH = milliHenry;
// temperature
const double Kelvin = 1.0;
const double Kelvins = Kelvin;
const double K = Kelvin;
// luminous intensity
const double candela = 1.0;
const double candelas = candela;
const double cd = candela;
const double apostilb = candelas/meter/meter;
const double apostilbs = apostilb;
const double nit = apostilb;
const double nits = nit;
const double skot = apostilb/1000.0;
const double skots = skot;
const double stilb = 10000.0*apostilbs;
const double stilbs = stilb;
const double Blondel = apostilb/pi;
const double Blondels = Blondel;
const double Lambert = 10000.0*Blondels;
const double Lamberts = Lambert;
// light flux
const double lumen = candela*steradian;
const double lumens = lumen;
const double lm = lumen;
// light intensity
const double lux = lumens/meter/meter;
const double luxes = lux;
const double luces = lux;
const double lx = lux;
const double nox = lux/1000.0;
const double phot = lumens/centimeter/centimeter;
const double phots = phot;
namespace equivalent {
const double lux = unit::lux/pi;
const double luxes = lux;
const double luces = lux;
const double lx = lux;
const double lumen = unit::lumen/pi;
const double lumens = lumen;
const double lm = lumen;
const double phot = apostilb/pi;
const double phots = phot;
}
// acceleration
const double Galileo = centimeters/second/second;
const double Galileos = Galileo;
// standard gavitational acceleration at sea level
const double gravity = 9.80665*meters/second/second;
// mass
const double kilohyl = kilogram*gravity*second*second/meter;
const double kilohyls = kilohyl;
const double hyl = kilohyl/1000.0;
const double hyls = hyl;

// English Units
// length
const double inch = 0.0254*meters;
const double inches = inch;
const double in = inch;
const double mil = inch/1000.0;
const double mils = mil;
const double point = inch/72.27;
const double points = point;
const double pt = point;
const double bottommeasure = inch/40.0;
const double bottommeasures = bottommeasure;
const double line = inch/12.0;
const double lines = line;
const double pica = 12.0*points;
const double picas = pica;
const double barleycorn = inch/3.0;
const double barleycorns = barleycorn;
const double finger = 7.0*inches/8.0;
const double fingers = finger;
const double palm = 3.0*inches;
const double palms = palm;
const double hand = 4.0*inches;
const double hands = hand;
const double link = 7.92*inches;
const double links = link;
const double li = link;
const double span = 9.0*inches;
const double spans = span;
const double foot = 12.0*inches;
const double feet = foot;
const double ft = foot;
const double cubit = 18.0*inches;
const double cubits = cubit;
const double yard = 3.0*feet;
const double yards = yard;
const double yd = yard;
const double nail = yard/16.0;
const double nails = nail;
const double ell = 45.0*inches;
const double ells = ell;
const double pace = 5.0*feet;
const double paces = pace;
const double fathom = 6.0*feet;
const double fathoms = fathom;
const double fm = fathom;
const double rod = 198.0*inches;
const double rods = rod;
const double rd = rod;
const double pole = rod;
const double poles = pole;
const double p = pole;
const double perch = rod;
const double perches = perch;
const double rope = 20.0*feet;
const double ropes = rope;
const double bolt = 40.0*yards;
const double bolts = bolt;
const double chain = 4.0*rods;
const double chains = chain;
const double ch = chain;
namespace Gunters {
const double chain = unit::chain;
const double chains = chain;
}
namespace engineers {
const double link = foot;
const double links = link;
const double chain = 100.0*feet;
const double chains = chain;
}
const double skein = 120*yards;
const double skeins = skein;
const double furlong = 220*yards;
const double furlongs = furlong;
const double spindle = 14400*yards;
const double spindles = spindle;
namespace US {
const double cable_length = 120.0*fathoms;
const double cable_lengths = cable_length;
}
namespace British {
const double cable_length = 100.0*fathoms;
const double cable_lengths = cable_length;
}
namespace statute {
const double mile = 5280.0*feet;
const double miles = mile;
const double mi = mile;
const double league = 3.0*miles;
const double leagues = league;
}
namespace nautical {
const double mile = 1852*meters;
const double miles = mile;
const double nm = mile;
const double league = 3.0*miles;
const double leagues = league;
}
namespace marine = nautical;
namespace geodetic {
const double foot = (1200.0/3937.0)*meters;
const double feet = foot;
const double ft = foot;
}
namespace geographical {
const double mile = nautical::mile;
const double miles = mile;
const double mi = mile;
}
const double parasang = 3.5*statute::miles;
const double parasangs = parasang;
const double arpentcan = 27.52*statute::miles;
const double arpentcans = arpentcan;
const double arpentlin = 191.835*feet;
const double arpentlins = arpentlin;
const double astronomical_unit = 1.49597871e11*meters;
const double astronomical_units = astronomical_unit;
const double AU = astronomical_unit;
const double lightyear = 9.4605e15*meters;
const double lightyears = lightyear;
const double ly = lightyear;
const double parsec = AU*radians/arc::second;
const double parsecs = parsec;
const double pc = parsec;
// area
const double barn = 1.0e-28*meter*meter;
const double barns = barn;
const double b = barn;
const double circular_inch = 0.25*pi*inch*inch;
const double circular_inches = circular_inch;
const double circular_mil = 0.25*pi*mil*mil;
const double circular_mils = circular_mil;
const double sabin = foot*foot;
const double sabins = sabin;
const double square = 100.0*sabin;
const double squares = square;
const double are = 100.0*meter*meter;
const double ares = are;
const double a = are;
const double rood = 40.0*rod*rod;
const double roods = rood;
const double ro = rood;
const double acre = 4.0*roods;
const double acres = acre;
const double section = statute::mile*statute::mile;
const double sections = section;
const double homestead = section/4.0;
const double homesteads = homestead;
const double township = 36.0*sections;
const double townships = township;
// volume
const double minim = 6.161152e-8*(m*m*m);
const double minims = minim;
const double drop = 0.03*cc;
const double drops = drop;
const double teaspoon = 4.928922*cc;
const double teaspoons = teaspoon;
const double tablespoon = 3.0*teaspoons;
const double tablespoons = tablespoon;
namespace US {
namespace liquid {
const double dram = 60.0*minims;
const double drams = dram;
const double dr = dram;
const double ounce = 8.0*drams;
const double ounces = ounce;
const double oz = ounce;
const double gill = 4.0*ounces;
const double gills = gill;
const double gl = gill;
const double pint = 4.0*gills;
const double pints = pint;
const double pt = pint;
const double quart = 2.0*pints;
const double quarts = quart;
const double qt = quart;
const double magnum = 2.0*quarts;
const double magnums = magnum;
const double gallon = 4.0*quarts;
const double gallons = gallon;
const double gal = gallon;
}
namespace dry {
const double pint = 550.61047*cc;
const double pints = pint;
const double pt = pint;
const double quart = 2.0*pints;
const double quarts = quart;
const double qt = quart;
}
const double peck = 8.0*dry::quarts;
const double pecks = peck;
const double pk = peck;
const double bushel = 4.0*pecks;
const double bushels = bushel;
const double bu = bushel;
const double barrel = 31.5*liquid::gallons;
const double barrels = barrel;
const double bbl = barrel;
const double bl = barrel;
}
namespace British {
namespace fluid {
const double drachm = 60.0*minims;
const double drachms = drachm;
const double dr = drachm;
const double ounce = 8.0*drachms;
const double ounces = ounce;
const double oz = ounce;
const double gill = 5.0*ounces;
const double gills = gill;
const double gi = gill;
const double pint = 4.0*gills;
const double pints = pint;
const double pt = pint;
const double quart = 2.0*pints;
const double quarts = quart;
const double qt = quart;
const double gallon = 4.0*quarts;
const double gallons = gallon;
const double gal = gallon;
}
const double peck = 2.0*fluid::gallons;
const double pecks = peck;
const double pk = peck;
const double bushel = 4.0*pecks;
const double bushels = bushel;
const double bu = bushel;
const double barrel = 36.0*fluid::gallons;
const double barrels = barrel;
const double bbl = barrel;
const double bl = barrel;
}
const double noggin = 2.0*US::liquid::eek:unces;
const double noggins = noggin;
const double cup = 8.0*US::liquid::eek:unces;
const double cups = cup;
const double fifth = US::liquid::gallon/5.0;
const double fifths = fifth;
const double jeroboam = 4.0*fifths;
const double jeroboams = jeroboam;
const double firkin = 9.0*US::liquid::gallons;
const double firkins = firkin;
const double kilderkin = 18.0*US::liquid::gallons;
const double kilderkins = kilderkin;
const double strike = 2.0*US::bushels;
const double strikes = strike;
const double sack = 3.0*US::bushels;
const double sacks = sack;
const double coomb = 4.0*US::bushels;
const double coombs = coomb;
const double seam = 8.0*US::bushels;
const double seams = seam;
const double wey = 40.0*US::bushels;
const double weys = wey;
const double last = 80.0*US::bushels;
const double lasts = last;
const double register_ton = 100.0*(ft*ft*ft);
const double register_tons = register_ton;
const double register_tn = register_ton;
const double cord = 128.0*(ft*ft*ft);
const double cords = cord;
const double cordfoot = cord;
const double cordfeet = cordfoot;
const double boardfoot = 144.0*inch*inch*inch;
const double boardfeet = boardfoot;
const double timberfoot = foot*foot*foot;
const double timberfeet = timberfoot;
const double hogshead = 2.0*US::barrels;
const double hogsheads = hogshead;
const double pipe = 4.0*US::barrels;
const double pipes = pipe;
const double tun = 8.0*US::barrels;
const double tuns = tun;
// mass
const double grain = 0.06479891*grams;
const double grains = grain;
const double gr = grain;
const double pennyweight = 24.0*grains;
const double dwt = pennyweight;
namespace apothecary { // weight
const double scruple = 20.0*grains;
const double scruples = scruple;
const double s = scruple;
const double dram = 3.0*scruples;
const double drams = dram;
const double dr = dram;
const double ounce = 8.0*drams;
const double ounces = ounce;
const double oz = ounce;
const double pound = 12.0*ounces;
const double pounds = pound;
const double lb = pound;
}
namespace troy = apothecary;
namespace ap = apothecary;
namespace t = apothecary;
namespace avoirdupois { // weight
const double pound = 7000.0*grains;
const double pounds = pound;
const double lb = pound;
const double ounce = pound/16.0;
const double ounces = ounce;
const double oz = ounce;
const double dram = ounce/16.0;
const double drams = dram;
const double dr = dram;
}
namespace avdp = avoirdupois;
namespace av = avoirdupois;
const double stone = 14.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
const double stones = stone;
const double st = stone;
namespace US { // short
const double hundredweight = 100.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
const double cwt = hundredweight;
const double quarter = hundredweight/4.0;
const double quarters = quarter;
const double qr = quarter;
const double ton = 20.0*hundredweight;
const double tons = ton;
const double tn = ton;
const double deadweight = ton;
}
namespace British { // long
const double hundredweight = 112.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
const double cwt = hundredweight;
const double quarter = hundredweight/4.0;
const double quarters = quarter;
const double qr = quarter;
const double ton = 20.0*hundredweight;
const double tons = ton;
const double tn = ton;
}
namespace English = British;
namespace Imperial = British;
const double crith = 0.0906*grams;
const double criths = crith;
const double bag = 94.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
const double bags = bag;
const double cental = 100.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
const double centals = cental;
const double weymass = 252.0*avoirdupois::pounds;
// rate
const double mgd = 1000000.0*US::liquid::gallons/day;
const double cfs = foot*foot*foot/second;
const double minersinch = 1.5*foot*foot*foot/minute;
const double mpg = statute::miles/US::liquid::gallon;
// speed
const double mph = statute::miles/hour;
const double knot = nautical::miles/hour;
const double knots = knot;
namespace admiralty {
const double knot = 6980.0*feet/hour;
const double knots = knot;
}
// force
const double poundal = avdp::pound*foot/(second*second);
const double poundals = poundal;
const double pdl = poundal;
const double lbf = avoirdupois::pound*gravity;
// pressure
const double psi = lbf/(inch*inch);
// energy
const double calorie = 4.1868*Joules;
const double calories = calorie;
const double cal = calorie;
const double kilocalorie = 1000.0*calories;
const double kilocalories = kilocalorie;
const double kcal = kilocalorie;
const double Frigorie = kilocalorie;
const double Frigories = Frigorie;
const double Btu = 1055.06*Joules;
const double therm = 10000.0*Btu;
const double therms = therm;
const double thermie = 1000000.0*calories;
const double thermies = thermie;
// power
const double horsepower = 735.49875*Watts;
const double HP = horsepower;
// electrical current
const double Gilbert = 0.795775*Amperes;
const double Gilberts = Gilbert;
// temperature
const double Rankin = 1.8*Kelvins;
const double Rankins = Rankin;
const double R = Rankin;
// luminous intensity
const double candle = 1.02*candelas;
const double candles = candle;
namespace Hefner {
const double candle = 0.9*unit::candles;
const double candles = candle;
}
// light intensity
const double foot_candle = lumens/foot/foot;
const double foot_candles = foot_candle;
const double fc = foot_candle;
const double foot_Lambert = candelas/foot/foot/pi;
const double foot_Lamberts = foot_Lambert;
namespace equivalent {
const double foot_candle = unit::foot_candle/pi;
const double foot_candles = foot_candle;
const double fc = foot_candle;
}
}
namespace units = unit;

namespace constant {
using namespace units;
// speed of light
const double c = 2.99792458e8*meters/second;
// speed of sound
const double Mach = 331.46*meters/second;
// Planck constant
const double h = 6.6260755e-34*Joule*seconds;
const double h_bar = h/(2.0*pi);
// standard gavitational acceleration at sea level
const double g = units::gravity;
// electron charge
const double e = 1.60217733e-19*Coulombs;
// elevtron Volt
const double eV = e*V;
const double keV = 1000.0*eV;
const double MeV = 1000000.0*eV;
const double GeV = 1000000000.0*eV;
const double Rydberg = 13.6054*eV;
const double Rydbergs = Rydberg;
// electron mass
const double m_e = 9.1093897e-31*kilograms;
// proton mass
const double m_P = 1.6726231e-27*kilograms;
// deuteron mass
const double m_D = 1875.61339*MeV/(c*c);
// unified atomic mass unit
const double atomic_mass_unit = 1.6605402e-27*kilograms;
const double atomic_mass_units = atomic_mass_unit;
const double amu = atomic_mass_unit;
const double Dalton = atomic_mass_unit;
const double Daltons = Dalton;
// permittivity of free space
const double epsilon = 8.854187817e-12*Farads/meter;
// permeability of free space
const double mu = 12.566370614e-7*Newtons/(A*A);
// fine-structure constant
const double alpha = 1.0/137.0359895;
// classical electron radius
const double r_e = 2.81794092e-15*meters;
// electron Compton wavelength
const double lambda_bar = 3.86159323e-13*meters;
// Bohr radius
const double a_0 = 0.529177249e-10*meters;
// wavelength of 1 eV/c particle
const double lambda_1eV = 1.23984244e-6*meters;
// Thomson cross section
const double sigma_0 = 0.66524616*barns;
// Bohr magneton
const double mu_B = 5.78838263e-11*MeV/Tesla;
// nuclear magneton
const double mu_N = 3.15245166e-14*MeV/Tesla;
// electron cyclotron frequency/field
const double E_M_e = 1.75881962e11*C/kg*(rad/(s*T));
// proton cyclotron frequency/field
const double E_M_P = 9.5788309e7*C/kg*(rad/(s*T));
// gravitational constant
const double G = 6.67259e-11*m*m*m/(kg*s*s);
// Avogadro's constant
const double N_A = 6.0221367e23;
// Boltzmann constant
const double K_B = 1.380658e-23*Joules/Kelvin;
// molar volume, ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure
const double V_molar = 2.897756e-3*meter*Kelvins;
// Stefan-Boltzmann constant
const double sigma_SB = 5.67051e-8*W/(m*m*K*K*K*K);
//
}
namespace constants = constant;
}
 
I

Ioannis Vranos

A

Andrey Tarasevich

Matthias said:
What is internal linkage good for? If the object is const, where is the
benefit of each translation unit having its own copy? It can't be
modified anyway, so it should hardly make a difference in terms of
semantics.
Click to expand...

In most real life situations these copies are purely conceptual. As long
as you are not accessing this object in lvalue context, most (if not
all) compilers won't create the actual object at all, so there won't be
any copies at all. Such situations are easy to detect for objects with
internal linkage.
 

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